The Dome of the Rock is a religious shrine of great historical and cultural significance situated on the Temple Mount (also known as the al-Aqsa Mosque compound) in Jerusalem's Old City. The building's inscriptions are considered a milestone in Islamic architecture as they contain the earliest proclamations of Islam and the Islamic prophet Muhammad [PBUH]. The shrine is one of the most iconic landmarks in the city and has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Foundation Stone, also known as the Noble Rock, is located beneath the Dome of the Rock and is significant to all three Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam). According to tradition, the stone marks the spot where God created the world and Adam; where the Ark of the Covenant was found; and where the Night Journey of Muhammad [PBUH] began, making it an important pilgrimage destination for Jews, Christians, and Muslims alike.

Dating to the late 7th century, the Dome of the Rock is considered the oldest surviving example of Islamic architecture and is renowned for its intricate mosaics and unique design elements. The shrine has undergone several renovations over the years, including a significant alteration to its exterior appearance during the Ottoman period and again in the modern era. One of the most notable changes was the addition of a gold-plated roof, which was added in the 1960s and then restored in 1993. It’s the latter restoration that will be the focus of this article.

On May 13th, 1992, the International Herald Tribune reported that King Fahd of Saudi Arabia had offered to cover the expenses for the restoration of the Dome of the Rock and other important cultural sites in Jerusalem. Let’s unpack.

King Fahd was already Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, which meant he was caretaker of the two holiest sites in Islam: Mecca and Medina. By protecting pilgrims to these cities, sponsoring aid and development programs, and restoring cultural sites, Fahd demonstrated his wealth and generosity while meeting his obligations as Custodian. Here, philanthropy was not just an act of goodwill, but also one of duty and diplomacy.

Jerusalem is the third-holiest city in Islam after Mecca and Medina. To keep Islamic heritage sites under Islamic governance, neighbouring Jordan has, since 1947, taken on the role of caretaker for mosques in Jerusalem, in trust for Palestinians and their future political stability. It was the Jordanian government, in fact, that submitted the nomination for Jerusalem to be inscribed on UNESCO’s World Heritage List. To this day, the Jerusalem Waqf is a branch of the Jordanian Ministry of Islamic Affairs and Holy Places, charged with ensuring the protection of Islamic and Christian holy sites in Jerusalem.

In the 1960s, the Jordanian government financed an ambitious restoration of the Dome of the Rock. During this project, the tiles on the dome’s exterior were replaced with large aluminum-bronze plates covered in gold leaf, returning the dome to its original gold colouring for the first time since the 10th century. The golden dome has since become an iconic symbol of Jerusalem.

Little thought was given, however, to the fact that the metal tiles would expand and contract in hot and cold weather. Water damage from the leaky roof soon started damaging the intricate mosaics and decorations on the interior of the mosque. In 1990, serious discussions began about the need for repair.

Jordan was less-than-excited about the possibility of another costly restoration. It was in this moment of indecision that Saudi King Fahd offered his support.

It’s likely that this offer was made to embarrass Jordanian King Hussein. Fahd was already the Custodian of Mecca and Medina and seemed to be trying to claim a custodial role over the Muslim sites of Jerusalem as well. The title of the International Herald Tribune article mentioned earlier suggested that “Islamic good works” were Saudi Arabia’s “new weapon against Jordan,” a kind of cultural diplomacy that combined philanthropy with guilt-tripping.

It's worth pointing out that there has been an informal competition between Jordan and Saudi Arabia for much of the 20th century. Jordan’s Hashemite monarchy (descended from the Prophet Muhammad [PBUH]) competed with the House of Saud for leadership in the Arab Islamic world.

Tensions flared between the two states in the wake of Iraq’s 1990 invasion of Kuwait. Jordan expressed support of the invasion, advocating for the Pan-Arab union of the two countries. Saudi Arabia, on the other hand, defended Kuwait and had since suspended all financial aid and oil deliveries to Jordan. It was almost immediately after the resolution of this conflict that King Fahd reached out to offer financial support for the restoration work in Jerusalem, attempting to undermine Jordan’s custodianship of Islamic holy places in the city.

UNESCO, either ignorant of this tension or looking to use it to their advantage, reached out to Saudi Prince Sultan bin Abdul-Aziz asking him and King Fahd to support the restoration of the Dome of the Rock. UNESCO’s Director General at the time, Federico Mayor, wrote letters to Saudi officials dripping with flattery. To Prince Sultan he wrote “the Arabia Plan had always considered you as the good ones that accompanied its birth, and now it is up to you to blow the whistle…as you made Arabia’s birth possible, please let its function be workable.” To Saudi Arabia’s Minister of Information, Sheikh Aly Al-Shaer, he gushed “I remain a colleague who has no more time to describe the beauty of the world as he sees it, because he is busy saving the beauty of the world as our forebears saw it.” And to King Fahd himself, Mayor thanked him for the efforts he had taken to preserve the cultural heritage of Jerusalem, requesting the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques’ assistance for Al-Aqsa as well.

This shows either an unbelievable ignorance of regional politics by UNESCO or, equally unbelievable, an absolute mastery of political manipulation.

Jordan’s King Hussein ultimately paid for the restoration project after selling one of his houses in London to raise the required $8.25 million. In total, 80 kilograms of gold were used to renovate the dome. The restoration was timely, coinciding with the first of the Oslo Accords, the negotiations for peace between Israeli and Palestinian authorities. Although not without its faults, the negotiations succeeded in gaining international recognition of the Palestinian National Authority, one step towards Palestinian self-determination.

In the meantime, Jordan’s role as guardian of both Islamic heritage and Arab sovereignty in Jerusalem was reaffirmed. Further, the 1993 restoration "demonstrate[d] continuous Muslim maintenance of the site from 692 to 1994. The Dome of the Rock, in line with its early history, continuously has been appropriated as the symbol of sovereignty in the region and the golden dome remains today the symbol of Jerusalem. As such, the Dome figures prominently in the decisions to be made in future peace negotiations on the final status of Jerusalem."